Historical context:

In the 18th and 19th centuries, many items were made in China specifically for export to satisfy the desire for the decorative and exotic amongst buyers in Europe and America. Chinese artists were accustomed to working with watercolours on paper so the early artworks produced for export in the 18th Century used the same medium. The compositions in this set maintain the Chinese stylistic tradition of depicting an unfolding scene in isolation, on a blank background, and with particular attention to detail. Toward the end of the 18th Century and beginning of the 19th, the local artists adapted their style to appeal to Western artistic taste. The compositions began to be set in perspectival landscapes and the use of oil paints begins to appear. Scenes of Chinese life became popular in western markets as trade with China grew throughout the Qing dynasty.

A set of 100 Chinese export watercolour paintings depicting different trades and occupations in Canton, attributed to Paqua and dated to c. 1790, comparable in style and size, is in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, accession number: D.104-1898. A further comparable set of 24 watercolour paintings depicting different scenes relating to an opera about the murder of a husband by his consort and her lover, dated to the 19th century, is in the collection of the British Museum, object reference number: 1877,0714,0.1084-1107.

Publications with illustrations of Chinese life by European writers included George Henry Mason’s ‘Costume of China’ - an album first published in 1800 which was based upon a series of watercolours by a Chinese artist. ‘Picturesque representations of the dress and manners of the Chinese, illustrated in fifty coloured engravings, with descriptions’ (1814) by William Alexander was another book which had a ready audience in the West.

The Paintings (refer to image of the set of twelve):

1st row, top left

Inscription: Dijiu: Baitang 第九拜堂 No.9, The bride and groom kowtow to the groom's parents.

This painting illustrates one of the most significant rituals in traditional Han Chinese weddings: Baitang (拜堂). This ceremony involves the bride and groom bowing to honor their ancestors, heaven and earth, and their parents, signifying their respect and devotion. Upon completing this ritual, the couple is officially recognized as husband and wife. They then bow to each other, marking the formal establishment of their marriage. Baitang can be traced back to the Tang dynasty and has remained a fundamental part of Han Chinese wedding traditions ever since.

In the painting, the groom’s parents are seated, ready to receive their son’s bow, while the bride, dressed in a red dress, is respectfully lowering her head. To the side, a maid carries a tray holding two teacups. In the next step of the ceremony, the young couple will each take a cup, kneel, and offer tea to their elders—an act that symbolizes the formation of a new family bond.

1st row, middle
Inscription：Diyi Shengzi Manyue 第壹（？）生子滿月 No.1(?) A month after the birth of a child
In ancient China, an important ceremony known as the Manyue (满月) ritual was held 30 days after a baby's birth to celebrate new life and the mother's recovery. On this day, family and friends of the new parents would visit with gifts to express their blessings. Offerings typically included rice, chicken, wine, oil, meat, and vegetables. The maternal grandparents were expected to present the newborn with clothing, hats, skirts, and a live duck - believed to provide nourishment for the mother - just as depicted in this painting.

Due to the traditional preference for male heirs in ancient Chinese society, such elaborate gifts were typically reserved for the birth of a son, as he was considered the continuation of the family lineage. While the baby in the painting is mostly swaddled in red fabric, only revealing a small head adorned with a black cap, we can infer from the ceremonial context that the child is a boy.

1st row, right
Inscription：頂馬 Dingma
This painting depicts a ceremonial procession known as Dingma (頂馬), a practice that originally referred to the mounted attendants leading an official’s entourage in imperial China. The term literally means “the foremost horse,” signifying the riders who rode ahead to clear the way.

In ancient China, high-ranking officials and members of the elite were often accompanied by elaborate processions when traveling to and from government offices or private residences. These processions typically featured foot soldiers, mounted escorts, and carriages, some adorned with flags and ceremonial canopies. Music played an essential role, with instruments such as bells, drums, chimes, and flutes accompanying the spectacle. Over time, this custom extended beyond official functions and became a symbol of prestige in private ceremonies. Wealthy families incorporated Dingma into wedding processions to showcase their status and opulence. The Qing dynasty writer Yuan Mei (袁枚) observed in his essays: “Nowadays, when noblemen travel the streets, they are preceded by one or two riders, a practice known as Dingma.” (今貴人街行， 前有騎馬者一二人，號稱頂馬)

In this painting, the central figure is a rider leading the procession, seated atop a horse that marks the beginning of the parade. Behind him, an attendant holds a ceremonial canopy, indicating a grand wedding ceremony is about to take place.

2nd row, left:
Inscription: 第八花紅轎 Diba Honghua Jiao No.8 Huahong bridal sedan chair
The term huahong (花红) literally translates to "floral red." In traditional Chinese customs, red silk and floral decorations were commonly used to signify joyous occasions. As a result, festive arrangements came to be known as huahong, and a huahong jiao 花红轎 referred to the bridal sedan chair, adorned with exquisite, embroidered silk.
This painting presents an exceptionally ornate bridal sedan chair, designed in the shape of a small pavilion. Its elegant, curved roof mimics the distinctive upturned eaves (feiyan 飞檐) of traditional Chinese architecture. The silk panels on the sides of the sedan chair feature elaborate embroidery depicting romantic tales and blooming peonies - symbols of love, prosperity, and good fortune in marriage. Walking ahead of the sedan, two maids carry dowry chests filled with jewelry and ornaments, carefully prepared by the bride’s family as part of the wedding tradition.

2nd row, middle
Inscription: Fengguan Ting 鳳官亭 ¬¬
This painting reveals an intriguing aspect of marriage rituals in Qing dynasty Han Chinese society—while not of imperial descent, Han women could, for one day, enjoy an honour historically reserved for Han empresses: the privilege of wearing a phoenix crown (fengguan, 鳳冠). The inscription identifies the sedan being carried by attendants as a "fengguan pavilion" (鳳官亭). Here, the term "fengguan" (鳳官) appears to be either a misspelling or an alternative transcription of "phoenix crown" ( fengguan鳳冠).

The origins of the phoenix crown can be traced back to the pre-Qin period, when it was an elaborate headdress worn by imperial women, crafted from gold and silver in the shape of a phoenix. Although Qing dynasty Manchu noblewomen generally did not wear the traditional Han-style phoenix crown, the combination of "phoenix crown and embroidered cape" (fengguan xiapei鳳冠霞帔) remained an essential element of wedding attire among Han Chinese women. This distinctive privilege was reserved exclusively for the bride on her wedding day, provided she was marrying as a primary wife.
In this painting, attendants are seen carrying a delicate fengguan, which appears to be crafted from gold and adorned with huasi xiangqian花絲鑲嵌 (filigree inlay) and diancui 點翠 (kingfisher feather insets)—a traditional decorative technique where iridescent blue feathers from the kingfisher bird were used to embellish fine jewellery. The subtle blue hue in the painting hints at the presence of this exquisite technique, which further suggest the noble status of the wedding families.

2nd row, right
Inscription: 第五大樂 Diwu Dayue No.5：Grand Music
This painting focuses on the musicians within the ceremonial procession. Some are seen beating drums, others striking gongs, while others play the suona (嗩吶)—a piercing, high-pitched wind instrument capable of cutting through the bustling noise of city streets. Leading the procession are two attendants carrying lanterns, one of which bears the inscription “He Residence” (何府). This inscription suggests that the procession belongs to an official or wealthy noble with the surname He (何). The use of the term 府 (fu, meaning “residence”) is significant, as it was reserved only for individuals of high social status, indicating the distinguished rank of the procession’s patron.

3rd row, left
Inscription: 第八主轎 diba zhujiao No.8 the major sedan chair
This painting depicts a sedan chair carrying a spirit tablet (lingpai靈牌) - an object that could belong to a deity or an ancestral tablet honouring a deceased family member. The presence of the spirit tablet suggests that the procession is part of a ritual or ancestral sacrifice, reflecting the deep-rooted reverence for ancestors in Chinese tradition.

3rd row, middle:
In a traditional Chinese wedding procession, there is often a band that plays music as the procession moves along. This picture shows a typical wedding band from the Qing Dynasty. From left to right, these talented musicians are playing the erhu 二胡, pipa琵琶, flute笛, sanxian（three-stringed instrument）三弦, tongbo 铜钹, yunluo云鑼, and sheng笙. Together, these traditional instruments form a marching wedding band with winds, strings, and percussion.

3rd row, right
Inscription: 第六大樂 Diliu Dayue No. 6：Grand Music
In this section of the wedding procession, behind the drummer, several attendants are carrying an elaborate pagoda-shaped structure. This striking centerpiece is most likely made of sugar—a traditional "sugar pagoda" (tangta 糖塔), a delicacy popular in Qing-dynasty Fujian and Guangdong.

In Chinese culture, the pagoda is a sacred Buddhist symbol, widely regarded as an auspicious emblem, while sugar was historically a luxury good. Sugar pagodas were commonly crafted for religious celebrations and weddings as offerings to deities, symbolizing prosperity and good fortune. In betrothal and wedding rituals, the groom’s family would present a sugar pagoda to the bride, signifying wishes for a fruitful and harmonious marriage.

The sugar pagoda in this painting is beautifully sculpted, resembling a real architectural sculpture, as they used wooden moulds to shape the sugar into a refined form. The little figures in red around the pagoda are most likely also made of sugar.

4th row, left:
Wedding gift: A Pair of Bird Sculptures
This painting depicts a wedding gift: a pair of intricately crafted bird-shaped sculptures. In traditional Chinese culture, birds in pairs often represent lifelong love and companionship, with wild geese (dayan 大雁) being the most well-known symbol. It was believed that once a pair of geese bonded, they remained together for life. If one died, the other would mourn alone and never take another mate. Because of this, wild geese became a powerful emblem of love and fidelity in Chinese weddings. It was common for the groom’s family to gift the bride a pair of goose figurine as a token of their wishes for a faithful and enduring marriage.

4th row, middle
Inscription: 開道 Kaidao to clear the way
This painting depicts a typical ceremonial procession used to clear the way for officials during the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties. At the forefront, two soldiers hold large plaques inscribed with the words “Avoid” (huibi迴避) and “Maintain Silence” (sujing肅靜) - symbols of the authority and prestige of the approaching dignitary. Behind them, attendants wielding whips, wooden batons, and sabers follow closely, ensuring order and deterring any bystanders from obstructing the official’s path.

The figures in black with tall hats are Boschee. See George Henry Mason, The costume of China: illustrated by sixty engravings: with explanations in English and French (published 1800), plate LVI. According to Mason, ‘It is his employment to make room for the retinue to pass, which he effects by exercising his staves over those who refuse to give way. There is however, very seldom any occasion for him to proceed to extremities, as he gives notice of approach by striking his staves together, which, producing a sound of authority, generally prepares a passage for the cavalcade without need of further exertions. His girdle serves either as a whip or a cord to chastise or bind offenders.’

The two figures to the rear of this party are a mandarin’s officers. William Alexander described them thus: ‘Some half-dozen of them generally precede a mandarin of rank when he goes in procession…. Their peculiar province seems to be that of keeping off the crowd. The feathers they wear in their tall conical hats are from three to six feet in length, and are apparently the tail feathers of a peculiar species of pheasant, which is represented as very scarce. Some of them wear the tail feathers of the argus pheasant.’ (‘Picturesque representations of the dress and manners of the Chinese. Illustrated in fifty coloured engravings, with descriptions', 1814, pl. XLVII).

4th row, right
This painting depicts attendants carrying religious ritual instruments in a sedan. On the left, we see a wooden fish (muyu, 木魚) - a percussive instrument traditionally used in Buddhist and Daoist ceremonies - alongside a singing bowl (songbo, 頌缽), a ritual object of Indian origin. When struck, the singing bowl produces a deep, resonant tone, evoking an atmosphere of solemnity and reverence.

The attendants’ white garments may further suggest the ritualistic nature of the objects, as white was often associated with mourning rites and sacred observances.